Inducible transcriptional activation of eukaryotic genes has been correlated with the formation of biomolecular condensates, promoted by Gene Specific Transcription Factors (GSTFs). Biomolecular condensates in this context are formed by the liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) capabilities of GSTFs’ activation domains, which are largely unstructured. These condensates recruit coactivators and transcriptional machinery, along with RNA polymerase (Pol II). The LLPS of the GSTFs and associated machinery act as crucibles to increase the dwell time of a GSTF over target loci and to induce high levels of transcriptional activity in response to stimuli, while limiting the inward diffusion of unneeded molecules into the condensate.
A recent example of this phenomenon is represented by Heat Shock Factor 1 (Hsf1), which forms condensates in response to heat shock in human and budding yeast cells. In budding yeast, the formation of Hsf1 condensates goes beyond gene activation: Hsf1 target genes engage in physical interactions (coalescence) in conjunction with their transcriptional activation, as seen both by microscopy and ligation-proximity assays. These heat shock-induced interactions are strictly dependent on Hsf1 and Pol II.
In my project, I am investigating the response of Hsf1 in yeast cells subjected to ethanol stress. Using live cell fluorescence microscopy, I have observed rapid formation of Hsf1 condensates in cells exposed to ethanol. However, these condensates exhibit properties that differ from those formed in response to heat shock: Pol II recruitment is severely delayed and Hsf1 condensates are long-lasting (present even after 4 h of ethanol stress vs. dissipation within 30 min in response to heat). Yet intergenic interactions between Heat Shock Response genes take place almost as rapidly as in heat-shocked cells, despite a substantial delay in transcription in ethanol-stressed cells. These results highlight the heterogeneity in the activity of a transcription factor in response to different stimuli, suggesting that an intricate mechanism is employed by Saccharomyces cerevisiae in its response to disparate environmental stresses.